Top 10 Lists

This list reveals some of the most important countries to target for forest conservation because they represent the largest total areas of tree cover loss globally. As one might expect, the countries with the most forests also tend to be the countries with the most tree cover loss. However, not all tree cover loss indicates deforestation because some tree cover loss (e.g., related to commercial forestry activities) is temporary in nature when forests are allowed to regrow. As such, this list also provides context about the drivers of tree cover loss in a given country and indicates the percentage of tree cover loss that is likely to be permanent. Countries with a high percentage of permanent loss could be viewed as priorities for efforts to reduce deforestation. Countries with a high percentage of temporary loss could be viewed as priorities for promoting sustainable forest management. 

This list indicates the tropical countries with the largest area of loss of humid tropical primary forests, areas of mature rainforest that are especially important for biodiversity and carbon storage. Primary forest loss includes both deforestation, such as the conversion of forests to pasture or agriculture, and some forms of forest degradation caused by, for example, understory forest fires. However, given that primary forests can take decades or even centuries to recover, even forest degradation events are of utmost concern. As such, this list represents some of the countries that are of greatest importance for conservation of humid tropical forests.  

In Australia, the main drivers of tree cover loss are forestry and wildfire, with forestry activity typically occurring along the coast and wildfire in the interior. Wildfires in late 2019 and early 2020 resulted in a massive spike in tree cover loss in the country. Although Australia’s eucalyptus-dominated woodlands are adapted to cycles of fire, the severity and scale of the fires, coupled with a years-long drought, may result in long-term damage to the country’s forests.Nolan et al. 2020, https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14987; Shuttleworth 2020, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/australians-love-a-home-among-gum-trees-but-can-eucalyptus-forests-recover-from-the-fires/2020/01/17/413d25fa-36b7-11ea-a1ff-c48c1d59a4a1_story.html .

Tree cover loss in Bolivia has mostly been driven by commodity production, particularly the expansion of large-scale agriculture and cattle ranching in lowland forests.Müller et al. 2012, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-011-0259-0 . Fires also play a major role in Bolivian forests, with large burn scars visible in the tree cover loss data during the strong fire seasons of 2004–5 and 2010 and, most recently, in 2019 and 2020.Global Fire Emissions Database 2020, <a href="https://www.globalfiredata.org/regional.html">https://www.globalfiredata.org/regional.html</a>; Heyer et al. 2018, <a href="https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-4317-2018">https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-4317-2018</a>; See <a href="/gfr/forest-pulse">Forest Pulse</a>. The 2019 and 2020 fires were most likely started by humans to clear land for agriculture and pasture, but they spread out of control due to dry, windy conditions. 

The majority of tree cover loss in Brazil is related to commodity production, especially for pastureland and cropland.See <a href="/gfr/data-and-methods#commodities1">Data and Methods</a>.; Tyukavina et al. 2017, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1601047">https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1601047</a>. In the early 2000s, declines in tree cover loss reflect Brazil’s initiatives to reduce deforestation, such as an increased emphasis on law enforcement, near-real-time forest monitoring, and supply chain interventions.Nepstad et al. 2014, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1248525 . The uptick in tree cover loss in 2016 and 2017 is primarily due to understory forest fires in the Amazon, generally started by people to prepare land for agriculture and pasture.Cochrane and Laurance 2008, https://www.nrem.iastate.edu/class/assets/nrem390-10/Cochrane%26Laurance_Tropics_Fire.pdf . Primary forest loss in the country has been stubbornly persistent in recent years, with official data indicating that clear-cut deforestation in the Amazon is at its highest rate in over a decade.TerraBrasilis 2020, http://terrabrasilis.dpi.inpe.br/app/dashboard/deforestation/biomes/legal_amazon/rates; Weisse and Goldman 2020, https://www.wri.org/blog/2020/06/global-tree-cover-loss-data-2019 .

Most of Cambodia’s tree cover loss is related to commodity production, and it has been particularly rapid as part of large-scale land acquisitions in the country known as economic land concessions.Davis et al. 2015, https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2540 . Previous studies have shown that the expansion of rubber plantations is responsible for around a quarter of Cambodia’s deforestation and is highly correlated to rubber prices, which peaked in 2011.Grogan et al. 2019, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41477-018-0325-4 .  Since 2001, Cambodia has lost 32 percent of its primary forests, some of the most important areas for biodiversity and carbon storage, which is the second-highest rate of primary forest loss of any tropical country.See <a href="/gfr/data-and-methods#primaryloss">Data and Methods</a>. 

Wildfire is the main driver of tree cover loss in Canada, particularly in the north of the country, followed by forestry, mostly to the south. These two drivers are less likely to entail permanent losses to the forest, so much of the loss is likely to be offset by regrowth.Curtis et al. 2018, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aau3445 . Fires are a natural part of the boreal forest ecosystem, but they can cause extensive economic damage, such as the 2016 Fort McMurray forest fire that was estimated to cause nearly C$10 billion in insurance losses,Di Liberto 2016, https://www.climate.gov/news-features/event-tracker/climate-connections-fort-mcmurray-fire .  and are likely to increase in frequency due to climate change.Wotton et al. 2010, https://doi.org/10.1071/WF09002 .  The low rate of tree cover loss in 2020 is related to the unusually quiet fire season in Canada.

The majority of China’s tree cover loss is related to forestry, which suggests that much of the area experiencing losses will eventually recover. China has implemented a massive reforestation campaign since the late 1990s, and many studies have indicated a large increase in tree cover as a result.Hua et al. 2018, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2018.03.034; Song et al. 2018, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0411-9; Viña et al. 2016, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1500965 . However, there are some concerns that this increase has been made up of monoculture tree plantations and native forest cover has decreased.Hua et al. 2018, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2018.03.034 .

Tree cover loss in Colombia is primarily driven by shifting agriculture and commodity production. Colombia has experienced a dramatic uptick in tree cover loss in recent years, particularly in the country’s deforestation frontier in the Amazon.Weisse and Goldman 2018, https://www.wri.org/blog/2018/06/2017-was-second-worst-year-record-tropical-tree-cover-loss . The increase is likely linked to the peace process in Colombia; areas of the Amazon experienced a power vacuum after the demobilization of the Armed Revolutionary Forces of Colombia (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia; FARC), which allowed for rapid deforestation.Brodzinsky 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jul/11/colombia-deforestation-farc; Clerici et al. 2020, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-61861-y; Prem et al. 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.104852 .

The majority of tree cover loss in the country is linked to small-scale agriculture, generally as part of the agricultural mosaic known as the “rural complex.”See <a href="/gfr/data-and-methods#forestchange1">Data and Methods</a>. Molinario et al. 2017, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aa8680">https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aa8680</a>; Tyukavina et al. 2018, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aat2993">https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aat2993</a>. Population growth and displacement due to conflict may play a role in increasing tree cover loss in the country;Nackoney et al. 2014, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2013.12.033; Tyukavina et al. 2018, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aat2993 . however, some of the increase shown in the graph may be related to inconsistencies in the tree cover loss data, which may be better able to detect small-scale clearings in recent years due to better satellite data.The increase was particularly apparent after the launch of the Landsat 8 satellite in 2013, which resulted in better-quality images and increased detection of small-scale changes. 

In Indonesia, most tree cover loss is associated with commodity production, especially large-scale timber and oil palm plantations.Austin et al. 2019, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aaf6db .  Human-induced fires related to agricultural activity also caused large-scale forest destructionWorld Bank 2016, http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/en/643781465442350600/Indonesia-forest-fire-notes.pdf . and led to harmful smogKoplitz et al. 2016, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/11/9/094023 . and carbon emissions.Lohberger et al. 2017, https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13841 . Fires were particularly prevalent during the El Niño events of 1997–98 and 2015–16. Indonesia saw a large reduction in tree cover loss starting in 2017, likely related to government policies to prevent clearing and fires.See <a href="/gfr/forest-pulse">Forest Pulse</a>.

The majority of tree cover loss in Malaysia is due to commodity production;See <a href="/gfr/data-and-methods#forestchange1">tree cover loss by dominant driver</a>. however, more than half of the loss in recent years has occurred inside existing plantations, such as oil palm and rubber,See Data and Methods <a href="/gfr/data-and-methods#forestcover1">tree plantations</a>. and likely represents the rotational cycles of those tree crops. Outside of those areas, the conversion of forests to industrial plantations and high-impact logging are major contributors to tree cover loss.Bryan et al. 2013, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0069679; Gaveau et al. 2016, https://doi.org/10.1038/srep32017 . Malaysia has seen five years in a row of declining primary forest loss, though it has lost nearly a fifth of its primary forest since 2001.See <a href="/gfr/forest-pulse">Forest Pulse</a>. 

Most of Paraguay’s tree cover loss is linked to commodity production. In the east of the country, agricultural expansion has led to very little remaining forest cover.Huang et al. 2007, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2006.09.016; Szulecka 2017, https://www.duo.uio.no/bitstream/handle/10852/61460/Chapter.ID_48221_6x9_Julia_Szulecka.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y . The country passed the Zero-Deforestation Law in 2004 prohibiting further clearing of native forests in eastern Paraguay, which has largely curbed deforestation in this region.Szulecka 2017, https://www.duo.uio.no/bitstream/handle/10852/61460/Chapter.ID_48221_6x9_Julia_Szulecka.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y . That has not been the case for deforestation in the Chaco of western Paraguay, Nolte et al. 2017, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378017300109?via%3Dihub#fig0010; Baumann et al. 2017, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-017-1109-5; Caldas et al. 2015, https://doi.org/10.1080/1747423X.2013.807314.  where expansion of cattle ranching is the main driver.Baumann et al. 2017, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-017-1109-5; Caldas et al. 2015, https://doi.org/10.1080/1747423X.2013.807314 . Paraguay has lost 33 percent of its humid tropical primary forest cover (mostly located in the east of the country) since 2001, which is the highest rate of primary forest loss of any country in the tropics. 

Forest loss in Peru tends to be smaller scale than in other countries in the Amazon, with most attributed to shifting agriculture. Three-quarters of forest loss occurs in areas smaller than five hectares.Kalamandeen et al. 2018, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-19358-2; Ministerio del Ambiente 2019, http://www.bosques.gob.pe/archivo/Apuntes-del-Bosque-N1.pdf .  Tree cover loss from the roads and infrastructure associated with logging is also prevalent throughout the Peruvian Amazon, where illegal logging is widespread.Global Witness 2019b, https://www.globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/forests/forest-avengers/; World Bank 2006, http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/330441468161667685/Strengthening-forest-law-enforcement-and-governance-addressing-a-systemic-constraint-to-sustainable-development .  Gold mining and oil palm plantations are common contributors to tree cover loss in parts of the country, with most loss occurring in the southern Amazon and the central Amazon, respectively.Caballero Espejo et al. 2018, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10121903; Vijay et al. 2018, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aae540 .   

Nearly three-quarters of all tree cover loss in Russia from 2001 to 2022 was driven by wildfires, with spikes in tree cover loss generally corresponding to spikes in fire activity.García-Lázaro et al. 2018, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10060940 . The balance of tree cover loss was due mainly to forestry activities. Fires in Russia are a natural part of boreal forest dynamics, though some research suggests fires will become more severe due to climate change — as may have been the case for forest fires in Siberia in 2020.De Groot et al. 2013, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2012.09.027; Lewis 2020, https://www.cbsnews.com/news/wildfires-sibera-russia-burned-area-larger-than-greece-heat-wave/ .  Despite having more tree cover loss than any other country (76 million hectares [Mha], equivalent to an area nearly the size of Turkey), some studies suggest that Russia’s net forest area has actually increased in recent decades, possibly related to forest regrowth on farmland abandoned after the collapse of the Soviet Union.Baumann et al. 2012, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2012.05.001; Potapov et al. 2015, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2014.11.027; Song et al. 2018, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0411-9 .  

Much of the tree cover loss in the United States is linked to forestry, with most of the loss areas likely to regenerate naturally or through direct reseeding or other silvicultural practices. The United States also has more tree cover loss driven by urbanization than any other country in the world, even though it only accounts for 6 percent of U.S. total loss.Curtis et al. 2018, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aau3445 .